What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning? – Teach thoughts

November 19, 2025

What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning?

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What did Vygotsky say about learning?

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory describes learning as a fundamentally social process and places the origins of human intelligence in cultural activities. A central theme of the framework is that social interaction plays a major role in cognitive development: knowledge is first constructed between people and then internalized by the individual (Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky’s model, also known as sociohistorical theory, emphasizes how cultural context, shared activities, and especially language shape the development of higher psychological functions. Learning and development are inseparable from the social and cultural environment in which individuals participate.

According to Vygotsky, learning unfolds on two levels—initially through interaction with others, and then within the learner’s internal mental processes. As he explains: “Every function in a child’s cultural development occurs twice: first at the social level, then at the individual level; first between people (interpsycho), then within the child (intrapsych)… All higher functions arise from actual relationships between individuals” (Vygotsky, 1978).

Let’s take a look at the principles of his learning theory.

Key concepts in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development “is the distance between the actual level of development as determined by independent problem solving and the potential level of development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” This idea is consistent with a broader view of cognition “Teacher Learning Theory“.

Through collaborative interaction, a more skilled person (such as a teacher or peer) can provide support to enhance the learner’s understanding and skills. This emphasis on guided learning is similar to the principles discussed in social learning theory principles.

This “zone” is a level of ability to understand or use a skill, from a knowledge or skill perspective, where the learner is able to master or apply the idea, but only with the support of knowledgeable others (Briner, 1999).

Example: Students can solve multi-step math problems only when the teacher models the first step; over time, students internalize this process and complete similar problems independently. Another example is that a reader can summarize a text guided by a prompt (“What happened first?”) but not alone.

This “MKO” can be another student, a parent, a teacher, etc.—anyone with a level of understanding or skill that enables the student to acquire knowledge or skills that would otherwise be unavailable. Strategies to support work in the zone of proximal development include modeling, direct instruction, collaborative learning (closely related to the distinction discussed in) Difference Between Constructivism and Constructivismthis concept reaching modelcombinatorial learning, etc.

2. Social interaction

Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interaction in cognitive development. He believed that learning occurs through interaction with others, especially knowledgeable people. Language plays a central role in these interactions because it enables communication, the transfer of knowledge, and the development of higher mental processes. These ideas are related to the learner-centred approach described in constructivism (see above).

Example: Students learning a new science concept become more proficient after discussing it with peers who explain it in everyday language. Likewise, during reading activities, teacher-led think-alouds model how to analyze text and help students internalize the reasoning process.

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory says, “Learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement—observation of behavior and its consequences (which have social consequences).” Vygotsky agreed with this idea.

3. Cultural tools and mediation

Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including language, symbols, artifacts, and social practices, mediate learning and development. These tools are products of a specific culture and are used by individuals to think, communicate, and solve problems. Through cultural tools, individuals internalize and construct knowledge, changing their cognitive processes. This broader perspective is Teacher Learning Theory.

Every function in a child’s cultural development occurs twice: first at the social level and then at the individual level (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57).

Example: Students initially learn how to interpret graphs by watching teachers demonstrate how to read axes and recognize patterns; subsequently, students use these same conventions independently. Another example is the child’s use of sentence frames provided by the teacher (“I predict…”) before eventually generating their own academic language.

4. Scaffolding

Scaffolding is any help, assistance or support provided by a more capable individual, such as a teacher, to facilitate learners’ understanding and skill development. Scaffolding is achieved by gradually adjusting the level of support to the learner’s needs and transferring responsibility to the learner as their abilities increase. These ideas are consistent with adult learning principles Andrology

Example: Teacher initially works with students on writing prompts, then provides sentence starters, and eventually removes support as students gain confidence. Another example is using guiding questions (“What will you try next?”) during problem solving and then stepping back to give the learner full control.

Scaffolding and similar ideas (e.g. the “Gradual Release of Responsibility Model: Show Me, Help Me, Let Me”) are also supported Integrated level of critical thinking.

5. Private speech and self-discipline

In his research (see also question type) Vygotsky noticed that young children often engaged in private speech, talking to themselves while performing activities.

He believes that private speech is important for self-regulation and cognitive development—a fact that is clear to parents and teachers, but is important here as a data point observed by a neutral researcher. Over time, this private speech is internalized and transformed into inner speech, which is used for self-direction and problem solving.

Example: A child assembling a puzzle might whisper, “This piece goes here…no, try the corner,” using speech to guide their actions, and then eventually solve the puzzle silently. Another example is when students verbalize the steps of a math problem (“First multiply…then add…”) before learning to manage these steps internally.